Louis Essen was born in 1908 in a small city in England called Nottingham. His childhood was typical of the time and he pursued his education with enjoyment and dedication. At the age of 20 Louis graduated from the University of Nottingham, where he had been studying. It was at this time that his career started to take off, as he was invited to join the NPL, or National Physics Laboratory.

It was during Louis’s time at the NPL that he began working to develop a quartz crystal oscillator as he believed they were capable of measuring time as accurately as a pendulum based clock. Ten years after joining the NPL Louis had invented the Essen ring. This was an eponymous invention which took its name from the shape of the quartz which Louis had used in his latest clock and which was three times more accurate than the previous versions.

Louis soon moved on to newer areas of research and began to study ways to measure the speed of light. During World War II he began to work on high frequency radar and used his technical ability to develop the cavity resonance wavemeter. From 1946 it was this wavemeter which he used, along with a colleague by the name of Albert Gordon-Smith, to make his lightspeed measurements. It has been acknowledged recently that Louis’s measurements were by far the most accurate to have been recorded up until that time.

During the early part of the 1950’s Louis began to take an interest in research which was being carried out at the National Bureau of Standards (NBS) in the United States of America. He learnt that work was being carried out to invent a clock which was more accurate than any other. The American scientists were using the idea of maintaining a clock’s accuracy by using the radiation emitted or absorbed by atoms. At that time the Americans were using a molecule of ammonia but Louis felt that this was not working as well as if they were using different atoms, such as hydrogen or caesium, and so he began working on his own clock using these materials instead.

1953 saw Louis and a colleague, Jack Parry, receiving permission to develop an atomic clock at the NPL based on Louis’s existing knowledge of quartz crystal oscillators and other relevant techniques he had learned from the cavity resonance wavemeter he had previously designed. Only two years later Louis’s first atomic clock was running, Caesium I, designed by the UK scientists. Development in the United States had all but stopped due to political difficulties.

Louis continued to work on his atomic clock and by 1964 he had managed to increase the accuracy of the atomic clock from one second in 300 years to one second every 2000 years! The continued success of Louis’s work resulted in the definition of a second being changed from 1/864000 of a mean solar day to being calculated as the time it took for 9192631770 cycles of the radiation in an atomic clock.

Louis Essen died in 1997 and before his death had been honoured with, amongst others, an OBE and the Tompion Gold Medal of the Clockmakers’ Company.

The United Nations, an international organization dedicated to keeping peace among the world’s nations, was created on October 24, 1945. This month, then, would be an excellent time to focus on how to settle disagreements and learn something about the U.N. Here are a few suggestions:

1. Read this excerpt of the U.N. Charter and discuss what it means:

We the peoples of the United Nations determine…to live together in peace with one another as good neighbors, to work for the equal rights of men and women and of nations large and small, and to promote better standards of life.

2. Try making your own criss-cross puzzle from the underlined words in the excerpt above.

3. Relate the word ‘equal’ to the definition learned in math.

4. Research to find the member nations of the United Nations and write them down. Once they are written, put them in alphabetical order; count the syllables in the names; find them in an atlas and make note of their geographic location (which continent has the most members? the least members?); make tally marks representing each country and practice counting by 5’s and 10’s. Which nations were charter members? Which countries were added later? Find out more about each country by breaking your class into groups.

5. Unscramble the names of these member countries:

DESWEN, LAPNOD, GARTENANI, SUITARALA, DIANI, GEPTY, TRAGE TRABINI, NADACA, HACNI, TENUDI TASSET

Now put these letters, from the countries above, in sequential order to form two words telling what the United Nations is working toward:

CROWLEAPED

6. Here are two realistic situations. Ask your children how they would solve these predicaments in order to make peace. Is there another way to achieve a win-win outcome?

A. Barbara, Cindy, and Judy have always been best friends. Lately, though, Cindy and Judy have been excluding Barbara from their playtime fun. Consequently, Barbara has decided to turn the rest of the class against them. Which way would achieve peace? Brainstorm other ideas!

a. Talk to the three girls privately to determine why Barbara is being ignored.

b. Punish all three girls by not allowing them to play.

c. Start a class discussion about what it means to be a friend.

B. William and Jose were close pals because they liked doing the same things, going to the same places, and going out with the same friends. When it was time for their first school dance, however, they both wanted to ask the same girl. Having found out that Jose had asked Maria first, William wouldn’t talk to Jose at all. Which way would achieve peace? Brainstorm other ideas!

a. Suggest that neither boy take Maria to the dance.

b. Suggest that William, Jose, and Maria all go together as friends.

c. Suggest that William tell Jose how he feels and see what Jose says.

I hope these ideas are useful and inspire your own creativity.

And remember…Reading is FUNdamental!

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Recall that there are four different base ten blocks: cubes (ones), rods (tens), flats (hundreds), and blocks (thousands). Groups of ten base ten blocks can be regrouped or traded for equivalent amounts of other base ten blocks; for instance, ten cubes can be traded for one rod because both are worth ten. For subtraction, it is useful to know how to trade down rods, flats, and blocks. Trading down means converting larger place value blocks into smaller place value blocks. For instance, one flat can be traded for ten rods since they are both worth 100.

Before describing the subtraction procedure, let’s go over some vocabulary . . .

Minuend - The amount from which you are subtracting.

Subtrahend - The amount that you are subtracting.

Difference - The answer.

In the equation, 234 - 187 = 47, the minuend is 234, the subtrahend is 187, and the difference is 47. Most people don’t bother with the terms minuend and subtrahend, but they are useful in describing the subtraction procedure using base ten blocks.

To begin, represent the minuend with base ten blocks. Try to keep the blocks in order from largest to smallest as this will help to transfer knowledge and skills to paper and pencil methods later on. Remove from the minuend piles, enough blocks to represent the subtrahend. If there aren’t enough blocks available, trade some of the larger place value blocks until there are enough smaller place value blocks to remove. The resulting piles after the subtrahend is removed represents the difference.

In the example, begin by representing 234 with 2 flats, 3 rods, and 4 cubes. The goal is to remove 187 or 1 flat, 8 rods, and 7 cubes from these piles. Removing one flat is simple enough, but 8 rods and 7 cubes are difficult to remove if there are only 3 rods and 4 cubes! To solve this problem, trade in one flat for 10 rods, and one rod for 10 cubes. The result would be 1 flat, 12 rods, and 14 cubes. Removing the subtrahend - 1 flat, 8 rods, and 7 cubes - at this point would leave no flats, 4 rods, and 7 cubes. The difference is whatever is left after removing the subtrahend, so the difference is 47.

For beginners, it would be wise to start with subtraction that does not require trading. For example 1954 - 1831 would require no trading because there are enough blocks in the minuend to remove the subtrahend. For more advanced students, questions that include zeros can present a bit of a challenge. For example, 4000 - 3657 would require several trading steps all starting with four blocks. .math-drills.com has several thousand free math worksheets including subtraction questions with no regrouping (trading). One of the nice features of this website is that answer keys are provided, so students can get feedback on their results.

With enough experience, students learn subtraction on a conceptual level and are better equipped to apply it to pencil and paper methods later on. Students who only learn the paper and pencil method don’t always develop a conceptual understanding of subtraction and are less able to identify errors in their work.

Base ten blocks are not limited to just addition and subtraction of whole numbers. In part III of this series, several other uses of base ten blocks will be explored.

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Securing enough funding for the Dallas schools is a problem experienced by many school districts in the United States. Most funding has become program specific, with government controlling its use and generally benefiting only a portion of the Dallas schools students. State funding has been scarce, requiring Dallas schools to rely upon local property and school taxes to cover the general needs of the schools. Additionally, federal government oversight creates a lot more administrative requirements. This means that many of the precious dollars the Dallas schools receive through government funding must be spent on administrative costs, rather than directly to benefit the students.

Recently, the Texas legislature passed new legislation for tax and school finance reform. Many are touting the law as especially good for Dallas schools. The law includes tax cuts to businesses, property tax cuts, strong taxpayer protections, and school funding and accountability improvements.

Here is how the new legislation affects the Dallas schools.

School Property Tax Control. Previously, the Dallas schools, along with other schools in Texas, could raise the school property tax rate by six cents per $100 of property every year &ndash without voter approval. With the new legislation, any raise of the school property tax rate of more than four cents must have local voter approval. Additionally, the maximum school property tax was $1.50 per $100 of property. The new legislation will lower that maximum to $1.00 per $100 of property over the next two years.

More Accountability and Transparency. The new legislation not only requires even more bureaucracy for the Dallas schools, but they are required to make it available on the Internet. The Dallas schools will now be required to place detailed local school spending information on a web site for anyone to review. This new level of heavy oversight gives ammunition to anyone who wishes to get their name in the paper through official complaint to the legislators or even bogus court action. Some question whether this might lead to more costs to the Dallas schools to defend needed expenditures that benefit Dallas schools students, either directly or indirectly.

Teacher Compensation. On the upside, the new legislation includes a $2,000 teacher pay raise, sorely needed by Dallas schools teachers. A $250 million state teacher performance pay plan is also included in the law, of which Dallas schools will receive its portion. The performance plan is to encourage teaching innovation and excellence.

Overall, the new legislation puts $1.7 billion dollars of new money into schools across the state, dramatically increasing the state’s share of public school funding. Though this new legislation does take a burden off the Dallas schools property taxpayers by providing more state funding for general school expenditures, it does decrease the local dollars that do not carry the heavy price tag of red tape administration, as well as lowering the Dallas schools ability to raise funds locally.

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With declining enrollment and building space for tens of thousands more students than they have enrolled, the Baltimore schools announced last December their restructuring plans to close several elementary, middle and high schools with others becoming combined K-8 schools.

The Baltimore schools held a series of community meetings, where they released a list of possible options they were considering. The options included schools to close, some to renovate, and where to build new ones. The options also were listed at their web site, where parents and community voted on which options they thought were best.

All options would close several Baltimore schools middle schools with consistently low test scores and high rates of violence. Some of these targeted schools are on the state’s “persistently dangerous” schools list, while others are being watched closely for inclusion to the list. The troubled Thurgood Marshall High School, site of a shooting in the 2004-2005 school year, also is included in all options. A new building will replace the current middle school, located at the same site, and be a K-8 school.

The Baltimore schools are dealing with deteriorating buildings, declining enrollment, and state demands that they operate the school system more efficiently. The Baltimore schools’ chief executive officer Bonnie S. Copeland stated that community committees, which used public input gathered earlier last fall, developed the options.

Copeland believed that much of the community shared her vision to expand the K-8 schools, which have been outperforming the traditional middle schools. Many parents, as well as community activist groups, were outraged and vehemently opposed several proposed options and school closings.

Many do not wish to see K-8 schools, unhappy with older children who set bad examples being mixed in with younger children. They believe the low test scores of several middle schools is more complex than just integrating the students with the elementary schools. Additionally, some high-performing schools could be closed, due to building conditions and capacity.

Many parents and activists believe it would be cheaper to renovate existing schools, rather than build new ones. David Lever, executive director of Maryland’s Public School Construction Program, backs this belief.

In March 2006, the Baltimore schools reacted to public pressure and released a substantially revised plan, stating that they took to heart the public’s concerns. The changes did little to appease the opponents of the plan, leaving the Baltimore schools caught between the state demanding a school closings plan and the parents and community activists.

After 85 public meetings on the topic and more than 10,000 participants, the Baltimore schools board voted at the end of March to close 16 Baltimore schools over the next two years. They also approved a 10-year, $2.7 billion plan to build 27 new Baltimore schools, moving thousands of children from middle schools to pre kindergarten through eighth grade.