January 16th, 2009 at 10:54 am
Occam’s (or Ockham’s) razor is a principle named after the 14th century mathematician and friar, William of Occam. Ockham was the village in this English County where he was born. There are many resources to investigate this man and his theories. This is not about him but his thinking. Thinkers are important to the world. Over thinking something can be the death of it.
Most people have never heard of this and yet with the logical thinkers of today it is almost built into our genetic code. We know things without realizing how or why we do. The universe as a whole is almost emanating this into our very souls. Our brains absorbing codes that alter our thinking giving the same idea to the masses at the same time. I don’t completely understand everything. When I hear something my brain lets me know that logically the information is even viable. The brain will calculate out many different scenarios. You will start to evaluate your own opinions, theories and reason as to why one thing sounds right vs. the other. The Occam’s razor is a logical way of thinking.
Short excerpts from the 14th century theory:
“If you have two theories which both explain the observed facts then you should use the simplest until more evidence comes along”
“The simplest explanation for some phenomenon is more likely to be accurate than more complicated explanations.”
“If you have two equally likely solutions to a problem, pick the simplest.”
“The explanation requiring the fewest assumptions is most likely to be correct.”
“Keep things simple!”
You have heard many of these concepts built in to many popular slogans and methods of achieving a goal. The Occam’s Razor does not only have to applied to only scientific experiments but it can be applied to every day life.
This is a great scholarly way of looking at things. The way you look at things dictates how you decipher, translate and learn things. Then if you can learn things you can implement them into discovering the worlds secrets.
1977:
The Age of biotechnology arrives with “somatostatin” - a human growth hormone-releasing inhibitory factor, the first human protein manufactured in bacteria by Genentech, Inc. A synthetic, recombinant gene was used to clone a protein for the first time.
1978:
Genentech, Inc. and The City of Hope National Medical Center announce the successful laboratory production of human insulin using recombinant DNA technology. Hutchinson and Edgell show it is possible to introduce specific mutations at specific sites in a DNA molecule.
1979:
Sir Walter Bodmer suggests a way of using DNA technology to find gene markers to show up specific genetic diseases and their carriers. John Baxter reports cloning the gene for human growth hormone.
1980:
The prokaryote model, E. coli, is used to produce insulin and other medicine, in human form. Researchers successfully introduce a human gene - one that codes for the protein interferon- into a bacterium. The U.S. patent for gene cloning is awarded to Cohen and Boyer.
1981:
Scientists at Ohio University produce the first transgenic animals by transferring genes from other animals into mice. The first gene-synthesizing machines are developed. Chinese scientists successfully clone a golden carp fish.
1982:
Genentech, Inc. receives approval from the Food and Drug Administration to market genetically engineered human insulin. Applied Biosystems, Inc. introduces the first commercial gas phase protein sequencer.
1983:
The polymerase chain reaction is invented by Kary B Mullis. The first artificial chromosome is synthesized, and the first genetic markers for specific inherited diseases are found.
1984:
Chiron Corp. announces the first cloning and sequencing of the entire human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) genome. Alec Jeffreys introduces technique for DNA fingerprinting to identify individuals. The first genetically engineered vaccine is developed.
1985:
Cetus Corporation’s develops GeneAmp polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technology, which could generate billions of copies of a targeted gene sequence in only hours. Scientists find a gene marker for cystic fibrosis on chromosome number 7.
1986:
The first genetically engineered human vaccine - Chiron’s Recombivax HB - is approved for the prevention of hepatitis B. A regiment of scientists and technicians at Caltech and Applied Biosystems, Inc. invented the automated DNA fluorescence sequencer.
1987:
The first outdoor tests on a genetically engineered bacterium are allowed. It inhibits frost formation on plants. Genentech’s tissue plasminogen activator (tPA), sold as Activase, is approved as a treatment for heart attacks.
1988:
Harvard molecular geneticists Philip Leder and Timothy Stewart awarded the first patent for a genetically altered animal, a mouse that is highly susceptible to breast cancer
1989:
UC Davis scientists develop a recombinant vaccine against the deadly rinderpest virus. The human genome project is set up, a collaboration between scientists from countries around the world to work out the whole of the human genetic code.
1990:
The first gene therapy takes place, on a four-year-old girl with an immune-system disorder called ADA deficiency. The human genome project is formally launched.
1991:
Mary-Claire King, of the University of California, Berkeley, finds evidence that a gene on chromosome 17 causes the inherited form of breast cancer and also increases the risk of ovarian cancer. Tracey the first transgenic sheep is born.
1992:
The first liver xenotransplant from one type of animal to another is carried out successfully. Chiron’s Proleukin is approved for the treatment of renal cell cancer.
1993:
The FDA declares that genetically engineered foods are “not inherently dangerous” and do not require special regulation. Chiron’s Betaseron is approved as the first treatment for multiple sclerosis in 20 years.
1994:
The first genetically engineered food product, the Flavr Savr tomato, gained FDA approval. The first breast cancer gene is discovered. Genentech’s Nutropin is approved for the treatment of growth hormone deficiency.
1995:
Researchers at Duke University Medical Center transplanted hearts from genetically altered pigs into baboons, proving that cross-species operations are possible. The bacterium Haemophilus influenzae is the first living organism in the world to have its entire genome sequenced.
1996:
Biogen’s Avonex is approved for the treatment of multiple sclerosis. The discovery of a gene associated with Parkinson’s disease provides an important new avenue of research into the cause and potential treatment of the debilitating neurological ailment.
1997:
Researchers at Scotland’s Roslin Institute report that they have cloned a sheep–named Dolly–from the cell of an adult ewe. The FDA approves Rituxan, the first antibody-based therapy for cancer.
1998:
The first complete animal genome the C.elegans worm is sequenced. James Thomson at Wisconsin and John Gearhart in Baltimore each develop a technique for culturing embryonic stem cells.
1999:
A new medical diagnostic test will for the first time allow quick identification of BSE/CJD a rare but devastating form of neurologic disease transmitted from cattle to humans.
2000:
“Golden Rice,” modified to make vitamin A. Cloned pigs are born for the first time in work done by Alan Coleman and his team at PPL, the Edinburgh-based company responsible for Dolly the sheep.
2001:
The sequence of the human genome is published in Science and Nature, making it possible for researchers all over the world to begin developing genetically based treatments for disease.
2002:
Researchers sequence the DNA of rice, and is the first crop to have its genome decoded.
2003:
The sequencing of the human genome is completed.
Science fair judges have specific things in mind when they review projects. Sure, they like interesting pictures, colorful displays and seeing clever ideas, but they also look for other, more specific, technical features.
Let’s take a peak at some grading sheets from a few science fairs.
One school used a point system to rate the most important elements of the project.
The ratings are below. What can we learn from this example judging sheet?
1) Know the Scientific Method well.
2) Know how to explain your project using the scientific method WITHOUT reading off your display.
3) Be enthusiastic and enjoy your information. Smile.
4) Create a detailed report fleshing out all the information included on your display.
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Sample 1:
1. Shows knowledge of the Scientific Method:
4 pt. Explains all 6 topics easily, shows understanding of conclusion. 3 pt. Explains at least 5 topics easily, shows understanding. 2 pt. Explains most topics with help from the board. 1 pt. Tries to answer questions asked by the judge.
2. Shows use of the Scientific Method through the board:
4 pt. Presents steps of method clearly and completely with headings 3 pt. Presents each step of method clearly 2 pt. Has each step on the board. 1 pt. Has some steps on the board.
3. Shows enthusiasm and interest in the project:
4 pt. Student is excited about the project and eagerly tells about it. 3 pt. Student is pleasant and shares information. 2 pt. Student tells about the project, when asked. 1 pt. Student answers some questions about the project.
4. Speaks knowledgeably about the project:
4 pt. Student eagerly talks with many details of the experimentation. 3 pt. Student shows understanding of the project. 2 pt. Student knows what the project is, giving minimal explanation. 1 pt. Student can answer questions when prompted.
5. Presents scientific data in a well-organized, visually appealing display:
4 pt. Board shows data in clear tables, charts, or pictures with headings. 3 pt. Board is neat and attractive, limited table, chart or pictures. 2 pt. Board has headings, using information stated. 1 pt. Board has headings and limited information.
6. Shows written evidence of research, experimentation and analysis :
4 pt. Booklet has Cover, Table of Contents, Research/Interviews. Thank you page and/or bibliography and experimentation included. 3 pt. Booklet has Cover, Table of Contents and Research/Interviews. 2 pt. Booklet has Cover and Some Research/Interview Data. 1 pt. Booklet is minimal or nonexistent.
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Sample 2:
I. Scientific Thought A. Does project follow the scientific method? B. Is the problem clearly stated? C. Are the procedures appropriate and organized? D. Is the information collected accurate and complete?
II. Creative Ability A. How unique or original is the project idea? B. Is it significant or unusual for a child this age?
III. Understanding A. Does it explain what the student learned about the topic? B. Does the project represent real study and effort? C. Does the project show the child is familiar with the topic?
IV. Clarity A. Does the student clearly communicate the nature of the problem, how the problem was solved, and the conclusion? B. Are the problems, procedures, data, and conclusions presented clearly and in a logical order? C. Does the student clearly and accurately articulate in writing what was accomplished? D. Is the objective of the project likely to be understood by one not trained in the subject area?
V. Dramatic Value A. Is the display visually appealing? B. Is the proper emphasis given to important ideas? C. Are all the components of the project done well?
VI. Technical Skill A. Was the majority of the work done by the student? B Has the student acknowledged help received from others? C. Does the written material show attention to grammar and spelling? D. Is the project physically sound and durably constructed?
Getting kids interested in science at an early age is very important. It’s easier than you think. Science does not have to be something mysterious. It is happening all around us, and you can use everyday things to encourage your children’s interest and knowledge.
Most parents believe that they can’t help their children with science. But you don’t need a advanced scientific degree to teach young children science. All you need is a willingness to try, to observe the world, and to take the time to encourage their natural curiosity.
You can help by having a positive attitude toward science yourself. Then start simply by asking your child questions about the things you see every day. Why do you think that happened? How do you think that works? And then listen to their answer without judging it or judging them. Listening without judging will improve their confidence, and help you determine just what your child does or does not know.
You can turn every day activities into science projects. For example, don’t just comment on how bright the moon is one night. Ask questions about why it’s brighter tonight, why does it change shape, etc. You can observe the moon’s phases throughout a month, and turn that activity into a science project, without even mentioning the words “science project”. For a child that likes cooking, observe how milk curdles when you add vinegar, or how sugar melts into syrup. Try baking a cake and asking why does the cake rise? What happens if you forget to put in some ingredient? Voila! Instant science project idea, without being intimidating to you or your child.
Different kids have different interests so they need different kinds of science projects. A rock collection may interest your young daughter but your older son may need something more involved. Fortunately, it’s not hard to find plenty of fun projects. Knowing your child is the best way to find enjoyable learning activities. Here are some more tips:
- Choose activities that are the right level of difficulty - not too easy nor too hard. If you are not sure, pick something easier since you don’t want to discourage a child by making science frustrating. You can always do the harder project later on.
- Read the suggested ages on any projects, books or toys labels, but then make sure that the activity is appropriate for your child, regardless of age. Your child’s interest and abilities are unique. If a child interested in a topic,they may be able to do activities normally done by older kids, while a child who is not interested may need something easier aimed at a younger ages.
- Consider how well the type of project matches your child’s personality and learning style. Is the project meant to be done alone or in a group? Will it require adult help or supervision?
- Choose activities matched to your environment. A city full of bright lights at night may not be the best place to study the stars. But during your vacation to a remote area, you may be able to spark an interest in astronomy.
- Let your child help choose the project or activity. It’s easy enough to ask. Rather than overwhelm them, suggest 2 or 3 possibilities. When a child picks something they are interested in, they will enjoy it and learn more from it.
Go ahead. Try it and see for yourself how easy it is the spark the interest of a child.
The concept of the invisible ether or ‘aether’ is an old concept dating to the time of the ancient Greeks. They considered the ether as that medium which permeated all of the universe and even believed the ether to be another element. Along with Earth, Wind, Fire and Water Aristotle proposed that the ether should be treated as the fifth element or quintessence; this term which literally means ‘fifth element’ has even survived down to the present day to explain an exotic form of ‘dark energy’ which is crucial in some cosmological models. These ideas spread throughout the world until the advent of a new springtime in scientific thought. The first person in the modern era to conceive of the idea of an underlying ether to support the movement of light waves was seventeenth century dutch scientist Christiaan Huygens.
Many others followed in expressing their opinions on the ether concept. Whilst Isaac Newton disagreed with Huygens wave theory he also wrote about the ‘aethereal medium’ although he expressed his consternation in not knowing what the aether was. Newton later renounced the ether theory because in his mind the infinite stationary ether would interrupt the motions of the enormous masses (the stars and planets) as they moved in space. This rejection was reinforced by some other problematical wave properties which were not explicable at the time; most notably, the production of a double image when light passes through certain translucent materials. This property of matter known as ‘birefringence’ was an important hurdle to be overcome for a proper understanding of the wave nature of light.
Some time later (1720) whilst working on other astronomical issues related to light and the cosmos, English scientist James Bradley made observations in hopes of quantifying a parallax. This effect is an apparent motion of foreground objects in comparison to those in the background. Whilst he was unable to discern this parallax effect he happened to reveal another effect which is prevalent in cosmological observations; this other effect is known as stellar aberration. Bradley was able to easily describe this aberration in terms of Newton’s particle theory of light. However, to do so in light of the wave or undulatory theory was difficult at best since to do so would have required a ‘motionless’ medium; the static nature of this ether concept was of course the property which had originally caused Newton’s denial of the idea.
But Newton’s acolytes would find themselves in a difficult position when it was shown that birefringence could be explained through another interpretation of the nature of light. If light was treated as being in a side to side action or ‘transverse motion’ then birefringence could be attributed to a light wave rather than the particle or corpuscular theory of Newton. This along with the detection of an interference effect for light by Thomas Young in 1801 renewed the ascendancy of the wave theory of light. These findings however carried with them all of the preconceived notions prevalent in the scientific mind. Since it was assumed that waves like water and sound waves required a medium of propagation, it was similarly assumed that light still needed a medium or ether for its waves to be transmitted across the universe.
However, further problems would afflict the ether theory. Because of the unique properties of a transverse wave it became apparent that this hypothetical explanation required the ether to be a solid. In response, Cauchy, Green and Stokes contributed theoretical and mathematical observations to an ‘entrainment’ hypothesis which later came to be known as the ‘ether drag’ concept. But nothing would give more impetus to these ideas than when James Clerk Maxwell’s equations (1870s) required the constancy of the speed of light (c). When the implications of Maxwell’s equations are worked out by physicists, it was understood that as a result of the need for a constant speed of light only one reference frame could meet this requirement under the teachings of Galilean Newtonian relativity. Therefore, scientists expected that there existed a unique absolute reference frame which would comply with this need; as a result, the ether would again be stationary.
As a consequence, by the late nineteenth century the aether was assumed to be an immovable rigid medium. However, earlier previous theories existed as to the nature of the aether. One of the most famous of these is known as the ‘aether drag’ hypothesis. In this concept, the aether is a special environment within which light moves. Also, this aether would be connected to all material objects and would move along with them. Measuring the speed of light in such a system would render a constant velocity for light no matter where one tested for light’s speed. This ‘aether drag’ idea originated in the aftermath of Francois Arago’s experiment which appeared to show the constancy of the speed of light. Arago believed that refractive indexes would change when measured at different times of the day or year as a result of stellar and earthly motion. In spite of his efforts, he did not notice any change in the refractive indexes so measured.
Many other experiments would follow; these were performed in order to find evidence of the aether in its many different abstractions. However the most important of these was conducted by american scientists Michelson and Morley. Their experiment considered another alleged effect of a different aether theory which came to be known as the aether wind. Since the aether permeated the entire universe, the earth would move within the ether as it spun on its axis and moved within the solar system about the sun. This movement of the earth with respect to the aether gave rise rise to the idea that it would be possible to detect an ‘ether wind’ which would be sensed because of the aforementioned movement. Thus, their experiment was essentially an attempt to detect the so-called ether wind. This mysterious zephyr would be nearly impossible to detect because the aether only infinitesimally affected the surrounding material world. Michelson first experimented in 1881 with a primitive version of his interferometer; a mechanism designed to measure the wave like properties of light. He would follow this by combining forces with Morley in the most famous ‘null’ experiment of physics.
In this investigation, Michelson utilized an improved version of his interferometer device. Michelson’s apparatus would help him win the Nobel prize for his optical precision instruments and the investigations carried out with them. His most important study being what became known as the Michelson Morley experiment of 1887. Michelson and Morley used a beam splitter made of a partially transparent mirror and two other mirrors arranged horizontally and vertically from a light source. When a beam of light traveled from a source of coherent light to the half-silvered mirror (the semitransparent mirror) it is transmitted to either of the horizontal or vertical mirrors. When the light returned to the eyepiece of an observer the separately returning light waves would combine destructively or constructively. This phenomenon is known as the interference effect for light. It was hoped that a shifting of the interference fringes from that which was normally predicted would be able to ascertain the existence of the aether wind.
To detect this effect, the Michelson interferometer was prepared in such a manner as to minimize any and all extraneous sources of experimental error. It was located in a lower level of a stone edifice to eliminate heat and oscillatory effects which might comprise the experimental results. Additionally, the interferometer was mounted atop a marble slab that was floated in a basin of mercury. This was so that the apparatus could be moved through a variety of positions with respect to the invisible ether. But despite their many preparations the experiment did not yield the expected fringe patterns. Thus, Michelson and Morley concluded that there was no evidence for the existence of the ether. Others would replicate the experiment in different incarnations which modified the premise of the experiment. Each and every one returning a similar negative result. Modern theorists have taken these results and those of many other experiments as being indicative of the non-existence of the aether. However, even the negative result of Michelson Morley has come in to question as far back as 1933.
In that year, Dayton Miller demonstrated the fact that even though the duo’s experiment had not specifically found the expected range of interference patterns, they had found an interesting little noticed effect. Miller then went on to suggest that Michelson Morley had found an experimental sine wave like set of data that correlated well with the predicted pattern of data. He also described how thermal and directional assumptions inherent in the experimental arrangement may have impacted badly on the fringe interference data. Thus, the test may have been performed in an imperfectly conceived experimental setup and with a built in mathematical bias against the detection of an appropriate outcome. Thus, in the future the aether theory in some form or another may still be sustainable as a foundational theory of physics.
Perhaps it is best to leave with these ideas as expressed in 1920 by Einstein who stated that he believed the ether theory to still be relevant to his ideas on space and time:
“More careful reflection teaches us, however, that the special theory of relativity does not compel us to deny ether. We may assume the existence of an ether”
he continued:
“Recapitulating, we may say that according to the general theory of relativity space is endowed with physical qualities; in this sense, therefore, there exists an ether”
and finally:
“According to the general theory of relativity space without ether is unthinkable; for in such space there not only would be no propagation of light, but also no possibility of existence for standards of space and time (measuring-rods and clocks), nor therefore any space-time intervals in the physical sense. But this ether may not be thought of as endowed with the quality characteristic of ponderable media, as consisting of parts which may be tracked through time. The idea of motion may not be applied to it.”
Outer space and the solar system is one of the most interesting topics discussed in school because of the countless colorful heavenly bodies occupying the universe and the idea that there is actually something else outside of our world.
In the few decades since space exploration began, probes have reached the far regions of the solar system. The solar system is the group of celestial bodies, including Earth that orbits around the Milky Way galaxy. Some hundred billion stars can be found in the universe while more than 1,000 comets have been observed regularly through telescopes.
To give this topic a little twist, here are tips to have students “get it.”
As introduction to the subject, bring your students out of the classroom (at both daytime and nighttime if it’s possible) so they can see what makes up the sky. Explain that the solar system is made up of our sun and all of the heavenly bodies that travel around it. Once they have familiarized themselves to the concept of space and the solar system, you can start moving on.
The ten planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, Pluto, and Xena) differ in characteristics. You can use a table to show these differences and characteristics. After showing how each is special from the other, you can let them pick a favorite planet, draw it the way they want it and explain why they chose it from the rest.
For more than 300 years there has been scientific discussions of the events that led to the formation of the solar system. And since it could be quite time-consuming to talk about the theories concerning the origin of life in the solar system, you may use film or other visual presentations as tools to better explain it.
A telescope is another effective device used to magnify or enlarge the image of a distant object. It is a very important tool for astronomers. It enables them to see much farther into space than is possible with the human eye. What you can do is bring a telescope you can share with your students so everyone can have a glimpse on what’s out there in space through a very informal activity.
What is space exploration? The age of space exploration began in the sixth decade of the 20th century. Since that time, robot probes and human beings have ventured beyond the limits of the Earth’s atmosphere. Today, space explorations include the investigation of celestial objects ranging in size from cosmic dust to the giant planets of the solar system. Because of technology, humans are continuously discovering more about life and forces in space. The possibilities are endless.
Outer space and the solar system may be a very interesting topic but its long history of theoretical and practical developments can fuel a lot of questions. The key to space exploration lay in the production of the rocket engine, which made possible the lofting of objects beyond the Earth’s atmosphere. With this subject, remember you are teaching your students that the field of space exploration and the solar system relies heavily on communication and technology.
Forensic Science is the application of science in forensic studies, the forensic part of forensic science implies that it is to be utilized in some form or another with a court of law and is relevant to legal proceedings. Forensic Science is rapidly progressing to the point that the science fiction of today could well be the science reality of tomorrow.
Forensic Science has been around for many centuries. However, it was not until recently that advances in scientific research and scientific studies made this a true and individual aspect of forensic research. Recent studies and research have brought the field of forensic science to new heights and given it increasing credibility and importance as a deciding factor in many legal proceedings, where forensic evidence often outweighs the testimony even of witnesses on the scene.
Almost everybody has heard of DNA evidence or fluorescing as well as many other recent scientific developments in forensic science. While many of us get our information from television programs such as CSI, the reality is that forensic science is rapidly moving from the realm of television to the broader expanse of the real world. DNA evidence is now an important part of most legal proceedings involving any human body. Whether discussing fibers from hair, clothes or even something so mundane as dust, forensic science can often draw conclusions and point to irrefutable facts that often lead to convictions of criminals who, if not for forensic science, would be free to commit more atrocities.
Fibers can have a telling tale that can only be exposed by the use of forensic science. Carpet fibers are unique to makes and manufacturers. Gunpowder contains microscopic residue that can correctly identify the type of powder, the manufacturer of the shell and much more information. Simple particles of dust, when viewed by using forensic science can place items or individuals at definitive places often down to an exact time frame. Something that we may see as just a bug or insect can tell how long an item has been in a particular location. There are many factors that are explored with Forensic Science. The scientific conclusion offers irrefutable proof and can be an effective tool in the fight against crime.
Advances in science and in particular with forensic science are not only new and fascinating but are constantly improving and being refined. Not only is forensic science a great tool for today, but the future looks bright indeed. An interest in Forensic science may even help the underachiever of today take enough interest in science and related fields of study to turn around and study harder to become the next practitioner of forensic science tomorrow. Forensic science benefits society as a whole in many different ways.
Is Albert Einstein’s Special Relativity incompatible with the very equations upon which science’s greatest theory is built? New observations made by many scientists and engineers appear to contradict the great scientist’s ideas. Apparently there are implicit contradictions present within Relativity’s foundational ideas, documents and equations. One individual has even pointed that quotations from the 1905 document and Einstein’s contemporaries as well as interpretations of the Relativity equations clearly and concisely describe a confused and obviously erroneous theory. It is time therefore, for science to update its thinking on this theory with a comprehensive analysis of the history leading up to, during and after that revolutionary year of Special Relativity.
As this is the 100 year anniversary of the original release of Special Relativity, a review of the original assumptions, documents and ideas which led to the acceptance of this theory is timely and warranted. Every year millions of students are taught this theory without a critical analysis of Relativity. Relativity Theory consists of its two variants Special Relativity and General Relativity and is considered the cornerstone of modern physics.
Albert Einstein borrowed from the ideas of Fitzgerald, Lorentz and Voigt to create a new concept of the universe. His first work in this regard later came to be known as Special Relativity and contained many controversial ideas which today are considered axiomatic. Amongst these are Length Contraction, Time Dilation, the Twin Paradox and the equivalence of mass and energy summarized in the equation E=mc2.
This equation became the shining capstone of the new theory along with its first & second postulates, namely, that the laws of nature are the same from all perspectives and that the speed of light ‘c’ is constant in a vacuum regardless of perspective. Further, the theory also predicted an increase in mass with velocity. Numerous examples have been given of the ‘proof’ of the validity of Special Relativity.
Most notably, experiments using particle accelerators have sped particles to incredible velocities which apparently provide confirmation of Einstein’s theory. However, doubts remain in the scientific community who have never totally given up the comfort of a Newtonian world view. This is readily apparent in that they refer to the Newton’s ‘Law’ of Gravitation whilst Special Relativity (SR) and General Relativity (GR) are given the polite attribution ‘The Theory of’ or simply SR ‘theory’ and GR ‘theory.’ Einstein would continue working on the ideas of Special Relativity until producing the aforementioned even more controversial treatise.
In his later more comprehensive work called the Theory of General Relativity (1916), Einstein proposed a major re-thinking of cosmology. He conceived of a space time continuum that is curved by mass; in other words, planets, stars, galaxies and other stellar objects cause a curvature of space time. The movement of these objects are determined by the aforementioned curvature.
As a result of these ideas, our understanding of geometry, math, physics, science and the universe would never be the same. However, some scientists are reporting that speed of light is not constant from different experimental observations. One has even reported errors in the fundamental equations. If so, this would require a major rethinking of the known cosmological models and assumptions of modern physics.